Since the intensification of the independence movement in Tibet, China has become absolutely furious with Britain, which has become less discreet in its support for the independence movement (plotting the creation of a buffer state).
For China, Tibet held a significant position not only as part of its sovereign territory but also in terms of future interests, including water and underground resources. Losing such an important Tibet to Britain was intolerable. Moreover, the opponent was Britain. Unlike Japan or the United States, Britain's national power was not significantly inferior, and the route from India to Tibet was limited.
Even though China was infuriated, it calmly calculated that victory was achievable. For the first time in a long while, victory seemed attainable, and China's staff officers were slightly excited. However, some rational individuals were aware that China was currently engaged in a war with the United States, and the country's national strength was being extravagantly depleted. Still, due to their extreme composure, they refrained from mentioning it.
By the way, even the rational ones forgot one thing.
That is, although Britain might be inferior to Japan or the United States, it was still a corner of the world-dominating power and a global empire. And in terms of wickedness, Japan was undoubtedly a country that even the United States couldn't compete with.
In a sense, China had forgotten who burned the Yuanmingyuan, just like Japan burned the Bohai Sea, or how the United States is currently burning China.
. . .
China
First, China conveyed to Japan the dispatch of troops to Tibet, citing the initiation of the independence movement by the local Tibetan residents through violence. Of course, this action was based on proposals from the Japan countermeasures team.
Japan, which values reasoning (pretext), interpreted that as long as China emphasized morality and humanitarianism, it would not immediately resort to a hardline response. Indeed, Japan's response remained a request for efforts to limit civilian casualties with a note that it would do so to the extent possible. Of course, China was not naïve enough to think that Japan would refrain from further interference because of this. However, it judged it as a diplomatic victory that bought valuable time.
During this time, China aimed to concentrate its forces in Tibet as much as possible and strive for a short-term decisive battle. In addition to the troops previously dispatched, reinforcements of 100.000 troops were sent, designated as the Tibet Pacification Army. Sending armored forces and artillery, among other things, was impossible due to the ongoing war with the United States. Instead, the Chinese staff decided to dispatch an air force. Of course, these were not state-of-the-art aircraft; they were biplanes that were deemed too antiquated to be deployed to the front lines (in the conflict against the United States) or even used for reconnaissance. Nevertheless, the Chinese staff estimated that they would be sufficient to crush the lightly armed independence forces.
Separately, the decision was made by the upper echelons of the Chinese government to send around 500.000 recently conscripted soldiers, along with their families, to Tibet as a police auxiliary force. This was essentially a policy of immigration (abandonment) to Tibet by China. China's economy was in turmoil due to strategic bombings by the United States, leading to the emergence of internal refugees. It was intended to use Tibet as a destination (outlet) for these refugees. Furthermore, it was stipulated that the police auxiliary force would sustain their livelihoods, primarily housing, by confiscating (plundering) from the rebellious local people (ordinary Tibetans) who sought independence. It was a clear manifestation of Chinese disdain for Tibetans.
. . .
Britain
Britain felt amused as the Tibetan independence movement ignited as planned, raging fiercely. They understood, to some extent, the feeling Germany experienced. To see enemy nations in disarray with just a little effort brought no emotion other than joy. However, effort meant budget, and budget meant utilizing the nation's assets. Using national resources for the sake of leaders' delight was never commendable—this understanding was shared among Britain's leadership. Therefore, they savored their joy alone, alongside their drinks, while publicly citing only Britain's interests as the reason.
For Britain, there were three reasons to support Tibet's independence and seek international recognition (being a patron) jointly with Japan: (1) to reduce the threat to India, (2) to secure Tibet as a market for Indian industry, and (3) for Tibet's resources.
The former two were aimed at benefiting India under Britain's leadership, turning India into both a potential strong nation within the British Commonwealth and fostering pro-British sentiments among the strongly independence-oriented Indian populace. Particularly, they targeted the economically savvy—those who prioritize profit and loss calculations. For this reason, apart from providing outdated weaponry, they also ensured that India received benefits. Production of simple wartime weapons designed in Britain, such as the Sten submachine gun, grenades, and ammunition, was carried out in Indian factories and provided to Tibetan independence forces. *1 Through Britain's policies and investments, the Indian economy flourished, primarily in the light industry sector.
Furthermore, Britain provided tanks to Tibet, albeit light tanks. Britain's armored units, despite transitioning abruptly into the era of main battle tanks due to the emergence of the Type 31 tank shock, withdrew light tanks with thin armor and limited firepower from frontline units, resulting in a surplus of vehicles. While some were upgraded or repurposed into general-purpose transport vehicles, those with outdated designs or were too small were gathering dust in warehouses. They were transported to Tibet by transport planes.
Taking cues from Japan's large transport aircraft (C-2), Britain developed modern transport aircraft equipped with a rear opening (ramp), continually delivering large quantities of military supplies, including light tanks, to Tibetan independence forces for as long as needed. In executing this large-scale airlift operation with apparent ease, Britain unequivocally demonstrated its status as a world empire (one of the G4).
Additionally, as China deployed its air force to Tibet, Britain countered by providing outdated aircraft—surplus 1.000-horsepower-class fighters, which had become obsolete as the Royal Air Force (RAF) transitioned to jets. Of course, Tibetan pilots couldn't possibly be prepared to handle fighter planes, so British pilots who had temporarily retired from the RAF demonstrated personal chivalry by participating. *2
. . .
Japan
While Britain was heavily involved in military support for Tibet, Japan was working to prepare for immediate national recognition upon Tibet's declaration of independence. Through discussions with France and the United States, Japan prepared a joint statement of independence recognition as part of the G4, and also worked on diplomatic preparations to join the League of Nations on the same day. Of course, Japan was also supplying weapons, ammunition, and other materials, but its influence was thinner compared to Britain's. *3
However, in advancing diplomatic efforts, the subtlety of Japan's influence held significant meaning. In this case, because China had concentrated its diplomatic assets on Britain, it was slow to notice Japan's actions. Even if China had noticed, it was not certain that they could have done anything about it. Yet, even if Japan's influence was as weak as that of a feather, there is nothing superior to not having any interference.
Furthermore, while the Soviet Union roughly sensed Japan's movements through the stage of the League of Nations, they did not convey this to China, partly due to the cooling relations between China and the Soviet Union. *4
. . .
Tibet
Though the Tibetan independence movement comprised fewer than 10.000 rebels, with support from Japan and Britain, they were able to gain an advantage in their struggle against the Tibetan contingent, which, though greater in number, was decisively inferior in equipment. Moreover, the road connecting Tibet and China was regularly bombed (by the Japan Bombers), preventing the main force of the Tibetan contingent from reaching Tibet. Additionally, the general population also supported the Tibetan independence movement.
With manpower shortages, volunteers (or conscripts) from Chinese residents and refugees joined the Chinese expeditionary force in resistance, but they lacked the power to halt the momentum. As a result, over two months after the initial full-scale armed conflict—starting from the day armed Chinese refugees attacked the Tibetan independence stronghold—the battle for Lhasa, Tibet's main city, began. In the battle for Lhasa, Chinese forces engaged in indiscriminate resistance, not hesitating to involve Tibetan civilians. They set traps with bombs on the streets and contaminated the water supply with toxic substances.
However, this angered the Tibetan residents of Lhasa, and within three weeks of the start of the battle, the Chinese were driven out of Lhasa with a heavy heart. However, due to their excesses, police and military personnel who were captured were sentenced to be hanged after a trial, regardless of their rank or position. *5 This could be seen as a decisive defeat for China.
However, China was not willing to concede Tibetan independence under any circumstances. They decided to reinforce the Tibetan contingent with an additional 100.000 troops. They also allocated a considerable amount of equipment, diverting it from the needs of the ongoing war with the United States, displaying a stance of thorough resistance. Furthermore, they declared the Tibetan Special Military Tribunal illegal for unlawfully punishing Chinese people through unjust and illegal trials. Under the pretext of holding an unlawful trial, they ordered Tibetan independence supporters and Japanese government officials to appear before China's special legislative tribunal.
Unaware of the grave situation of being surrounded by enemies on all sides, China found itself in de facto hostilities with three of the G4 nations.
Upon realizing this dire situation, Chiang Kai-shek quietly prepared to drown his sorrows in the strong alcoholic beverage, laojiu, in the dead of night. However, he was stopped by his concerned wife, who worried about his health. Chiang Kai-shek argued that nothing was worse for health than war, but his plea fell on deaf ears.
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Notes
*1: Britain's policy of appeasing India was warmly welcomed by the Indian side due to its pragmatic approach.
In the early 20th century, India advocated for complete independence from Britain due to the rise of nationalism. However, this sentiment dwindled once they recognized the benefits of being part of the British Commonwealth's economic union and the privilege of accessing the Japanese Federation market on the most favored nation terms (G4 treatment). Although it was extremely unpleasant to formally acknowledge the British monarch and to be obliged to accept Britain's military requests, the benefits from the Japanese market, and above all, the ability to freely acquire yen (a hard currency), held significant meaning.
While Britain's pound sterling was strong as the currency of a world empire, Japan's yen, backed by Japan's economic prowess, held an absolute position among international currencies (G4 Currency). Furthermore, as evident from this, Japan's largest export item was the yen.
*2: Of course, it was all orchestrated by the British government, and veteran pilots who were reluctant to switch to jet fighters participated to make their last stand. The 1st Tibetan Volunteer Air Force squadron (Wild Geese), consisting of nearly 20 fighters, engaged in fierce combat with China in the skies over Tibet. Once soaring through the skies of Britain, the Spitfire fighter aircraft now flew over foreign lands, adorned not with the roundel but with a goose. They proudly displayed significant victories, earning them the affectionate nickname of "Proud Spitfires."
*3: While Britain's provision of heavy equipment such as tanks and fighter jets stood out, Japan's support was by no means lacking. On the contrary, for the Tibetan independence movement, which primarily relied on infantry units, easily portable firepower such as the ML-81 mortar (a low-cost model of the L16b 81 mm mortar) and the ML-915 anti-materiel rifle (Yellow Degtyaryov), a single-shot rifle using 12,7 mm bullets developed at the request of the Siberian Republic military, served as reliable companions. The ML-81 mortar, with its longer range compared to conventional infantry guns, was downright formidable, while the power and accuracy of the ML-915 anti-materiel rifle, also used for sniping, were merciless. Furthermore, the large quantity of high-performance ML-04 radios provided transformed the disparate Tibetan independence fighters into a cohesive fighting force.
Regarding the use of weapons and equipment, instructors from SMS Corporation (a Japanese extraterritorial military organization) were accepted. The instructors, known to be more fearsome than demons (Ranger Instructors), polished the Tibetan independence fighters to the best of their abilities, akin to polishing a diamond badge pinned to their chests, even if only for a short period.
The Tibetan independence movement, in some semblance of a military formation, was able to engage on par with China's Tibetan contingent, which included officers trained in the German army style, thanks to receiving efficient operational tactics through intelligence from Japan's reconnaissance satellites.
Just as the Spitfire fighter planes soaring in the sky uplifted the spirits of the Tibetan people, Japan supported the foundation of the Tibetan independence movement. Therefore, Japan and Britain later came to be hailed as the two pillars supporting Tibetan independence.
*4: The independence of Tibet signifies a decline in China's national power, which in turn inevitably reduces the threat to South China, a region that is at odds with China and is supported by the Soviet Union. In that sense, the Soviet Union was in a position to support Tibetan independence.
Despite harboring resentment towards the hegemonic Anglo-Japanese powers and bearing inherent animosity towards Japan, the Soviet Union maintained the restraint necessary to assess the situation dispassionately without succumbing to emotional impulses.
*5: It could be said that the tragic scene borne out of Tibetan anger unfolded, but the resistance put up by the Tibetan contingent involved a considerable number of women and children, and as a result — it was a case of reaping what was sown. Many Tibetans clamored for retaliation, and the Tibetan independence movement responded to those voices.
Furthermore, the reason for the rudimentary trials being conducted was due to strong opposition from Japan. It wasn't as if the captured Chinese were pitied. Rather, it was due to the potential complications in tarnishing the cause of Tibetan independence through unjust proceedings. Moreover, based on Japan's experience, it was understood that executing individuals during wartime required flawless material evidence beforehand; otherwise, one could face accusations later on.
The persuasive, serious demeanor of Japan's representatives convinced the Tibetan independence movement to comply. However, there was no intention to prolong the trials. Japan mobilized various air transport means, almost abducting members of the Military Legal Affairs Committee of the Security Council from the League of Nations Headquarters (Geneva), and swiftly convened an emergency trial with the Military Legal Affairs Committee serving as judges.
The proceedings lasted a mere three days in a tremendous display of force. The power of the trial reached a point where everything from the interrogation to the trial was held in front of the mass media. The month-long trial — the Tibetan Special Military Tribunal — was prosecuted by Japan's legal officers. While Chinese defendants (prisoners of war) were represented by officers dispatched from China to handle legal matters, it was difficult to argue that they understood the Hague Convention on Land Warfare that their own country, as well as others, had signed. Their demands focused primarily on the release of prisoners taken by the mob (Tibetan independence fighters).
In contrast, Japan's legal officers, drawing on the experiences of US military legal officers from wars around the world, skillfully presented evidence of the guilt of the Chinese prisoners of war under the principles of law and evidence. This approach resulted in a trial that was deemed a public execution. All prisoners were found guilty. Regarding penalties, Chinese law was applied since Tibet was not yet an independent state. Naturally, this meant charges of murder, and the sentence for murder was death.
Chinese legal officers argued that the trial was an illegal and tyrannical act by Japan, but since the trial's proceedings were completely open to scrutiny, and there was no evidence of arbitrariness or illegality in the trial process itself, no one supported China's claims. Even Germany, a friendly country to China and an anti-Japanese state, refrained from criticism, merely expressing hope for the humanitarian execution of the sentences. The actions of the Tibetan contingent could be deemed excessive.
The cries and pleas for mercy from the Chinese prisoners of war were ignored, and after the verdicts were finalized, the sentences were promptly carried out.
Furthermore, in this trial, an appearance by Chiang Kai-shek, the supreme leader of the nation, was requested by Japan to clarify who authorized the heinous actions of the Tibetan contingent, but this request was refused. As a result, the entire responsibility fell on the Tibetan contingent headquarters, and arrest warrants for headquarters personnel were issued in the Tibetan Special Military Tribunal.