What Is Inference?
Inference is using observation and background to reach a logical conclusion. You probably practice inference every day. For example, if you see someone eating a new food and he or she makes a face, then you infer he does not like it. Or if someone slams a door, you can infer that she is upset about something.
Before you can begin to practice inference in literature, you should know what you are looking for. Your goal is to find the intended meaning of the text. Intended meaning is what we think the author is trying to teach us.
Why is it important to make inferences? When writing a story, an author will not include all the information for us. He/she will expect us to read between the lines and reach conclusions about the text. When making inferences, you are looking beyond what is stated in the text and finding the ideas to which the author only hints. This makes you a more active reader and critical thinker. It also makes it easier to understand what the author is sharing with you.
You might not realize how often you derive conclusions from indications in your everyday life. These inferences help you make decisions about things like what you’ll say or how you’ll act in a given situation.
Sally arrives at home at 4:30 and knows that her mother does not get off of work until 5. Sally also sees that the lights are off in their house. Sally can infer that her mother is not yet home.
Sherry's toddler is in bed upstairs. She hears a bang and crying. Sherry can infer that her toddler is hurt or scared.
John hears a smoke alarm next door and smells burnt bacon. John can infer that his neighbor burnt her breakfast.
Jennifer hears her mailbox close and her dog is barking. Jennifer can infer that the postal carrier has delivered her mail.
Norman sees cookie crumbs on the floor and chocolate around his son's mouth. Norman can infer that his son ate a cookie.
The floor is covered in shreds of newspaper, and Susan's dog has a small piece of newspaper stuck in his fur. It can be inferred that Susan's dog ate the newspaper.
Sarah left a Payless Shoes bag on the floor and is wearing shiny red heels. It can be inferred that Sarah went shoe shopping at Payless.
What Is Observation?
The definition of an observation is the act of noticing something or a judgment or inference from something seen or experienced. An example of observation is the watching of Haley's Comet. An example of observation is making the statement that a teacher is proficient from watching him teach several times.
What are skimming and scanning.
Skimming and scanning are reading techniques that use rapid eye movement and keywords to move quickly through text for slightly different purposes. Skimming is reading rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material. Scanning is reading rapidly in order to find specific facts. While skimming tells you what general information is within a section, scanning helps you locate a particular fact. Skimming is like snorkeling, and scanning is more like pearl diving.
Use skimming in previewing (reading before you read), reviewing (reading after you read), determining the main idea from a long selection you don't wish to read, or when trying to find source material for a research paper.
Use scanning in research to find particular facts, to study fact-heavy topics, and to answer questions requiring factual support.
Sentence Structure.
Simple Sentence Structure
A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.)
independent clause
I like coffee.
Mary likes tea.
The earth goes round the sun.
Mary did not go to the party.
Compound Sentence Structure
A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semicolon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone.
I like coffee and Mary likes tea.
Mary went to work but John went to the party.
Our car broke down; we came last.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
Complex Sentence Structure
A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.)
We missed our plane because we were late.
Our dog barks when she hears a noise.
He left in a hurry after he got a phone call.
Do you know the man who is talking to Mary?
Here are some common subordinating conjunctions:
after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while
Here are the five basic relative pronouns:
that, which, who, whom, whose
Use of grammar and punctuation.
Exclamation Mark.
Also sometimes referred to as the exclamation point, especially in American English, is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings, or to show emphasis. The exclamation mark often marks the end of a sentence, for example: "Watch out!" Similarly, a bare exclamation mark (with nothing before or after) is often established in warning signs.
Interrogation Mark.
Question marks are used in direct questions, i.e. when the actual words of a speaker are used. A reported question should end with a full stop.
Quotation Marks.
Quotation marks, also known as quotes, quote marks, speech marks, inverted commas, or talking marks, are punctuation marks used in pairs in various writing systems to set off direct speech, a quotation, or a phrase. The pair consists of an opening quotation mark and a closing quotation mark, which may or may not be the same character.
Capital Letters.
Capital letters are not really an aspect of punctuation, but it is convenient to deal with them here. The rules for using them are mostly very simple.
(a) The first word of a sentence, or of a fragment, begins with a capital letter:
The bumbling wizard Rincewind is Pratchett's most popular character.
Will anyone now alive live to see a colony on the moon? Probably not.
Distressingly few pupils can locate Iraq or Japan on a map of the world.
(b) The names of the days of the week, and of the months of the year, are written with a capital letter:
Next Sunday France will hold a general election.
Mozart was born on 27 January, 1756.
Football practice takes place on Wednesdays and Fridays.
However, the names of seasons are not written with a capital:
Like cricket, baseball is played in the summer.
Do not write *"... in the Summer".
(c) The names of languages are always written with a capital letter. Be careful about this; it's a very common mistake.
Juliet speaks English, French, Italian and Portuguese.
I need to work on my Spanish irregular verbs.
Among the major languages of India are Hindi, Gujarati and Tamil.
These days, few students study Latin and Greek.
Full Stop.
The full stop, period or full point . is a punctuation mark. It is used for several purposes, most often to mark the end of a declarative sentence (as opposed to a question or exclamation); this sentence-terminal use, alone, defines the strictest sense of full stop.
Comma.
There are some general rules which you can apply when using the comma. However, you will find that in English there are many other ways to use the comma to add to the meaning of a sentence or to emphasise an item, point, or meaning.
Although we are often taught that commas are used to help us add 'breathing spaces' to sentences they are, in fact, more accurately used to organise blocks of thought or logical groupings. Most people use commas to ensure that meaning is clear and, despite grammatical rules, will drop a comma if their meaning is retained without it.
Colon.
The colon is used to introduce a list of items.
Example
The bookstore specializes in three subjects: art, architecture, and graphic design.
Do not, however, use a colon when the listed items are incorporated into the flow of the sentence.
Correct
The bookstore specializes in art, architecture, and graphic design.
Incorrect
The bookstore specializes in: art, architecture, and graphic design.
Semicolon.
The semicolon is sometimes described as stronger than a comma but weaker than a period. In certain uses, this is a reasonably accurate definition. Yet there is more to the semicolon than that.
Connectives for Comparison, Sequencing, Qualifying
Comparative Connectives:
Used to compare, discuss and argue, showing similarity or adding a point, showing a difference or an opposite point of view, Reinforcing a point.
also
Jack's son is also called Jack.
even
Even though it's winter the weather is not cold.
furthermore
Furthermore you must remember your books.
indeed
Rare indeed is the chance to witness a bolt of lightning.
moreover
I like to race moreover I like to win.
only
I only met him briefly.
alternatively
You can run or alternatively you can walk quickly.
anyway
She could not find anyway out of the problem.
but
There were lots of ducks but only one goose.
differs
The story differs depending who tells it.
elsewhere
You can't be here, you need to go elsewhere.
however
Mable enjoyed chocolate cake however she preferred a coffee cake.
contrast
I like the contrast between the white jacket and blue trousers.
fact
It is a well known fact that a cube has six faces.
instead
Let's walk instead of driving.
nevertheless
He nevertheless recognised the danger of his actions.
Additionally
Additionally, he volunteered in his spare time.
Sequencing Connectives:
We use them to speak about the order, time or sequence of an action.
Firstly
Firstly get all the ingedients ready.
another
Tell us another joke.
next
I'm going back to Spain next year.
subsequently
Subsequently the train was late.
then
Close the curtains then switch on the light.
finally
The group finally reached safety.
after
After the riot the shops were looted.
before
Pierce the lid before cooking.
lastly
Lastly I want to stress that this is a terrible idea.
Qualifying Connectives:
Qualifying connectives help to explain why something may change because of something else. We will have a barbeque provided it doesn't rain. If you work hard we will go out to play early. All the connectives in the list are conjunctions, which means that they are used to join two clauses within the same sentence.
Provided
We will have a barbeque provided it doesn't rain.
If
If you work hard we will go out to play early.
As long as
As long as you are here we will give you lunch.
Unless
You will lose the exam unless you study hard.