Although the duke is the highest rank in the peerage, it is also more recent than some of the lower ranks. The oldest dukedom was granted by Edward III when he created the Duke of Cornwall for his eldest son in 1337, and within the peerage fewer dukedoms have been created compared to the other ranks.
The duke is one of the most popular characters in Regency-set stories because many writers see him as the historical equivalent of the "Billionaire Businessman" so loved in modern romance. Dukes often had more than one estate, and therefore held a lot of land, which sometimes provided them with an annual income greater than that of the Royal Family.
Yet to say that all the dukes were richer than any marquess or earl would be wrong. In 1819, one year before the end of the Regency, the top four reputed incomes in the kingdom—over £100,000 per year—belonged to the Duke of Northumberland, the Marquess of Stafford, the Earl Grosvenor and the Earl of Bridgewater.
Creating a Dukedom
Originally a monarch would invest a duke in Parliament by fastening a ceremonial sword to a belt or girdle. After 1615 a dukedom would be created by Letters Patent. Each individual letters patent will specify the rules for who can inherit the title. In most cases it will be passed to "the heirs male of his body lawfully begotten and to be begotten". This means any legitimate male descended from the original title holder.
Dukedoms were always territorial, meaning the title was also a place name from England, Scotland or Ireland. The family did not have to live in, or have any connection to, the location, but it was often the name of a county, town or even a village where they held property.
When the Earl of Manchester was created in 1626, the title was not taken from the large industrial town of Manchester in Lancashire. The Earl's estate - Kimbolton Hall - was in Huntingdonshire (now part of Cambridgeshire) and their title was taken from the nearby town of Godmanchester. As the first Earl thought it would be blasphemous to be addressed as "The Lord Godmanchester", he shortened his title accordingly. His descendant, the 4th Earl, was made Duke of Manchester in 1719.
Between 1795 and 1820 there were less than 30 non-Royal dukes in the whole of England, Scotland and Ireland. Of those, two became extinct (died out from lack of an heir) before 1820, and the Duke of Wellington was newly created in 1814 after his military successes.
Royal Dukes are dukedoms that have been inherited into the Royal Family and are traditionally granted to their younger sons, or their daughters' husbands. They are styled: "His Royal Highness, the Duke of ....."
Royal Dukedoms are hereditary, but if the title becomes extinct it will be absorbed back into the Royal family to be reused at a later date.
During the extended Regency period the Royal Dukedoms were:
Duke of Lancaster, (the King)
Duke of Cornwall, (Prince George, eldest son)
Duke of Rothesay, (Prince George, eldest son)
Duke of York & Albany, (Prince Frederick, second son of the King)
Duke of Clarence & St Andrews, (Prince William, third son of the King)
Duke of Kent and Strathearn, (Prince Edward, fourth son of the King)
Duke of Cumberland and Teviotdale, (Prince Ernest, fifth son of the King)
Duke of Sussex, (Prince Augustus, sixth son of the King)
Duke of Cambridge, (Prince Adolphus, seventh son of the King)
Duke of Gloucester & Edinburgh, (before 1805, Prince William Henry, brother of the King)
Duke of Gloucester & Edinburgh, (after 1805, Prince William Frederick, husband of Princess Mary, fourth daughter of the King)
Order of Precedence
Dukes were the highest rank within the peerage, but also had their own "order of precedence" - in other words they took their seniority very seriously. A duke's place in the order was decided based on when his dukedom was created, and what part of the country it came from. The earlier the date of the creation, the higher up the order they came. The newer titles came lower down the list.
At the top of the list were all the dukes created in England before the Act of Union in 1707, in order of creation. The oldest non-Royal dukedom was the Duke of Norfolk, and he was considered the Premier Duke of England.
Below them were the dukes in the Peerage of Scotland, before the Act of Union, in order of creation. After that came the dukes who had been created in England and Scotland after 1707, and then the dukes of Ireland.
Beneath all those were the dukes created after the Union with Ireland in 1801 - the dukes in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Only one dukedom was granted between 1801 and the end of the Regency period, so in 1814 Arthur Wellesley, the newly created Duke of Wellington, would have been at the very bottom of the Dukes' order of precedence, although he was still higher than any Marquess.
Homage Fees
Although his elevation might have been an honour granted by the king, there were fees involved for receiving or succeeding to a dukedom.
A newly created duke would pay £350 for the privilege of becoming a duke. When he was introduced to the House of Lords he would pay a further £27, which would have covered the cost of the ceremony and the paperwork involved. All subsequent heirs would also pay for their introduction into the House of Lords.
Even if he was already a peer, he would still have to pay the same for his 'promotion'. The new duke would also have the further expense of buying the robes appropriate for his rank.
Ducal Robes
When a king or queen is crowned, a duke will attend in his ceremonial robes, which differ very slightly for each rank. The mantle and surcoat for a duke is crimson velvet, lined with white taffeta. The mantle (a kind of elbow length cape) is covered with ermine fur, and has four rows of spots on each shoulder. The coronet for a Duke is a gold band, set round with eight strawberry leaves.
A Royal duke's coronation robes differs from those of any other duke in having six rows of spots on each shoulder. They are also entitled to wear princely coronets, which take the form of a gold band, set round with four crosses patée alternating with four strawberry leaves.
A duke's parliamentary robes, worn on other state occasions, are of fine scarlet cloth, lined with taffeta and doubled with four bands of ermine and gold lace, set at equal distances apart. It is tied with a white ribbon. His cap is crimson velvet, lined with ermine, with a gold tassel on the top. An example of these robes are shown at the top of the page.
A new set of robes was very expensive, and they were often handed down to the heir where possible. Parliamentary robes were worn on state occasions, but the coronation robes were only used at the coronation of the monarch, which might not happen during a peer's lifetime.
Addressing a duke
[Our example here will be the Duke of Manchester, William Montagu. His subsidiary title was Viscount Mandeville]
A duke and duchess would be announced as:
His Grace, the Duke of Manchester
Her Grace, the Duchess of Manchester
Their Graces, the Duke and Duchess of Manchester.
They would never be called Lord or Lady Manchester.
If you were speaking to them face to face, you would address them as "Your Grace". After that, you could call them "Sir" and "Madam".
Their eldest son would be announced as: Viscount Mandeville. You would address him in speech as "Lord Mandeville", and subsequently as "my lord".
Their daughter would be announced as Lady Jane Montagu. You would address her as "Lady Jane". All dukes' daughters are addressed in the same way.
Their younger son would be announced as Lord William Montagu. You would address him as "Lord William". All dukes' sons (apart from the eldest living son) are addressed in the same way.
If Lord William Montagu was married, his wife would be announced as Lady William Montagu. You would address her as "Lady William". This identifies her as a duke's daughter-in-law, rather than a daughter by birth.
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[Image: A duke in his Parliamentary robes, taken from "A book explaining the ranks and dignities of British society", by Charles Lamb, published 1805. [Public Domain]]
Edited to add section on Homage Fees