Chapter: The troubled 60's
John F. Kennedy (democratic president) who was elected in november 1960? but was murdered in 63. is victory was not easy, he won with a narrow majority → he got 34.2 million votes and he oponent got 34.1 million (Nixon).
He was very young when he came to the white house (42° for the americans he was the first catholic president. His dad had wanted his older brother to be a president but he died.
The ticket :
K. is a guy from the north, well educated, he is not liked everywhere. To attrack vote from people of the south because didn't like him, he needed L. Johnson he is a running mate? Form the south andhe is a self-made man. There was an antagonism between them.
→ Kennedy's home policy: he had a program called "the new frontere" and we have a description of this in is inogural speech. He have famous words in that speech. "My fellow Americans ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country" he wanted america to be focused on " objectifves: technology (space), human rights, wanted to fight poverty and a better education for many people, he wanted peace. He new he had a difficult task because congress is control form the southern democrats and they hate Kennedy.
Few victory in congress: - anew housing act to fight for urban renewal, to get rid of slum. With a budget of 5 billion dollars. The minimum wadge was increased, social security benefit were increased.
For develpping and under developping country → the peace corps. Courps made young students to go to Africa.. to help to educational and thechnical services. Bill Clinton was there?
They accelerated the program to land astonauts on the moon (he will not see it but they will) (astaunots for american, cosmonauts for oviet)
a tarief expension act in 1961? to cut tarrifs btw the us and europe. (to the european market)
the civil rights: many events: the philosophy of non violence spread especially in the south. The civil rights mvt is developing just before he was elected. New mvt called the Sit-in movement where did he start? In North Carolina in greens borrow 4 black students entered restaurent and sat down at a counter and waited to be served bu the counter was a white only counter. The peaceful non violent spread to 9 southern state. Black students were no longer alone and helped by white students. 1960 creation of SNCC Students Non violent Coordinated Committee. Colaborated with kings mvt to spread the philosophy of non violence.
Organised by CORE Congress of Ration Equality in 1961 they send groups of white and blakc people together sitiing on a bus and they were called the freedom riders and they would start their journey in the north and would travel south to see if the ban on segregation was respected in the south. They were violently attaked by extremist. That violence was in a way useful because in every american home there is a box called television and everyone could see how vioently this activist were treated and they did not react violently. Gradually it attracted national attention and won the civil rights mvt many supporters.
Federal reaction? Kennedy had to get involved but didn't want him. He had to react, in 1962 when the governer of Mississipi called Ross Barnets? Prevented a black student form entering the university of M. th estudent is James Meredith.
Who acted? Robert Kennedy the attorny general. He sent federal marchals to the UOM so that James could enter the University. The federal mmarhcals were attacted by racist people. Federal troupes were sent and James managed to register at the uni. Later on he renounced going.
G Wllace in 1961 he tried to prevent several black students form entering the university of Alabama and once again federal marshalls were sent. Meanwhile many american citizens grew angry to see on tv how peaceful non violent activist were treated by racist people. → in a town called Burningham, in may 63, the head of the police called Eugene "Bull" Connor who was an outspoken racist that man order his men to use dogs, tear gazes, electric cattle prods and hoses against pacifist demontraters who included MLK. King was arrested, later released. The way king was doing things was clever because throufgh non violent actions he wanted to show how violent racist people could be and he could do that thanks to tv. It doesn't mean everybody agree, for example Hoover didn't like him at all so he order his phone to be recorded. The high point of the civil right movement took place in Washington in august 1963, King after a demontration, controlled by the Kennedy, he made one of his most famous speeched "I have a dream" 200 000 people present. It is a mix crowd of black and white people, largest civil rights demonstration so far.
Gradually several factors are working together to intice Kennedy to act. We have King's popularity increasing among white and black people, more and more american citizen are shocked to see how black people are treated. The soviet union "treat black people in a goof manner". The work carried out by the activist. Robert Kennedy who is more interested in the fate of black people than his brother is. The combination of all this made Kennedy act??? so he made a speech in which he said that racial discrimination as no place in america, new bills and act were needed. → civil right bill sent to congress. The goal was to end discrimination in public facilities, to disegragate public school and to protect black voters, but congress his controlled by the south who doesn't like him so the bill was struck and Kennedy was murdered 22 of noverber..
→ Kennedy's policy abroad:
Not an easy task, he had a bad start because he herided something from Heinshower. The desaster of the Bay of Pick.?? a plan for an invasion of Cuba and the kiiling of Castro by anti-Castro Cubans and thoses people were trained by the CIA.
When Kennedy arrived ...
they arrived in April 1961 and he turned out to be a disaster which increased tension with the soviet union. Soviet union with which nogatiation. → K meet Khrouchtchev. Kr was after a huge success because on april 12th a soviet cosmonaut called Y.Gagarine became the first man in out of space. He orbited the earth so huge technical victory for the soviet union. K was not in a very simple possition and Kr tried to controlled him because he though K was to young for the job. During the negociation Kr even issued a threat which was to limit western access to west Berlin (repetition of the brocade?? of Belrin) no perfect talk → K returned to the US and he mobilized the army and the nation guard units. But the soviet went a step furthur in Berlin → they started building in august the berlin wall to seperate the western and eastern parts of Berlin. Many eastern people wanted to flee eastern. Could america react? K knew it would start WW3. He did bring a support the following year, he visited West Berlin, the war was there and made a speech made famous he said "Ich bin ein Berliner" then we rich the climax : the Cuban missile crises. Castro after the bay of.. fell threated by america and so he truned to the soviet union and asked for some protection. Crutchef was to happy to help because Cuba is close to Florida. Wanted nuclear missile in Cuba. They did it secretly but america was watching cuba secretly and on the 14th of october 61 American planes flying very high in Cuba descovered missile sights?? under construction in Cuba, the pictures were analyse by expert. K made up his mind, on 27 of october he made a speech to congress in that speech he said that missile slides? hAs been discovered and had opted for a naval quarantine not a blockade. The term blockade meant an act of war so he did use the word. Negociation were not easy. Everybody though their would be a war. Cr said they would ignore the quarantine, he had to be seen a strong leader at home. Especially vis a vis the Chiana, the soviet navy saw the american ships but stop a few miles before the naval quarantine, they didn't force their war to the quarantine → an agreement was made → the soviet would not instore their missile in cuba in return for the american promise that they would not invade Cuba and they kept their promise. They kept one tiny land on cuba. After that crises both leaders tries to ease the tentsion because knew they were close to ww3. For example american sent whear to the soviet union, they also instore an hot line between Washington and Mosco. Alerican missile were also remove from Turkie Italie and GB, it had been planed because the missile were opsolite? A treaty was negociated also between america, Gb and .. to stop nuclear testing in the atmosphere, the treaty was ratifyed in september...
Vietnam the situation is more and more difficult. North Vietnam was supplying communist resistance called the vietcon?? the north was aslo sending soldiers in the south thanks to the Ho Chi Minh. Diem was growing even more and more impopular, he started attacking the boudhist??
in june 63, Budist monks?? sent themselves on fire and die in the street of Saigon. They would pour gazoline over themselves and die burned alive → seen on tv, so americans shocked especially when talk about barbecue monks?? K grew fed up with diem?
They wanted to get rid of him and organized a coup d'état without warning diem bc they wanted to get rid of them.
2 november 63 diem was destituted and killed but he didn't help the situration in Vietnam because after him a succession of useless generals. Increasing number of american soldiers being sent to vietnam. In 61 2000 troupes, in 63 we have 16000 military advisors and the vietnamese quagmire was develping.
Conclued on K precidency: he has remained in people's mind has a young president because he died young. His presidency was called "the time of Camelot" reached the highest point. There is a decline in the prestige of the job??
Lyndon B. Johnson was the vise president. He was in Dallas and became the new president on board on the plane bringinb K body back to Washignton.
He is older from K, from the south, a self-made man. And very often, he felt like an outsider in the white house. He was not well-liked by K friends for exemple. The senate democratic leader for almost ten years so he knew how congress worked, knew how things had to be done, great admire of Roosevelt and wanted something similar to the new deal.
What he did at home:
His version of the knew deal was called " the great society" which for him was a vast social program to help poor people. After the golden years there was still poor people → 50 million people still leaved in poverty. It had been revealed by a book by M. harrington called "the other ameirca" more or less a best seller and showed that poveety was still going after the golden years.
Act called the economic oportunity act of 1964: with 1 billion dollars for:
- a job corps for inner city youth because poverty was especially located inside cities.
- program for college students called "work/study jobs"
- program for the disadvantage pre-schoolers
grants for poor farmers and rural buisnesses
K had created a piece corps for Africa so kind of piece corps for america called Volunteers in Service To America (VISTA) targeted inner cities.
Their was a community action program for the poor neiborhoods and they too located inner cities.
Came the election of 64. Johnson was elected and he felt he was totally free to lunch is great society program at full speed.
We have two words which enters history:
-medicare? Insurance program for all people
- medicade which covered medical payements for the very poor people
a budget of 1.5 billion dollars which is huge at the time was also voted for elementary and secondary schools.
They were also trying to get rid of the slums developing in inner cities "urban renewal" they did it thanks to an act 65 which is housing and urban development act. 3 billion dollars. There was a new department in 66 → department of housing and urban development.
1966 act for the poor people living in the desolate part of the apporlation?????
college students got scholarship thanks to the higher education act.
Targeted education, health and housing. Howerver it turned out that the program had been badly plan, under funded and so it didn't work well. Financial competition from the war in vietnam.
Johnson on the civil rights: he got the civil rights bill signed by congress. Voted in 64 it became the civil rihgt act which ended racial discrimination in hotels, restaurants and othe rpublic accomodation. It meant that the attorny general could bring segragated schools to justice in an easier way than before. Federal prgrams and private employers had to eliminate discrimination. There was also and equal opportunity commition issued aban on job discrimination by race, religion, national origin or sex bc developpement of women roght.
MLK? Nobel peace price in 64
another act called the voting rights act. 65. which once again insured the right to vote to all american citizent.
A black person entered the government in 65. he appointed Robert C. Weaver became the first black cabinet, he was the secretary of housing and urban dvlp. In 66 he nominated the first black supreme court jsutice, a wellknown man called T.Marshall who used to be a very well known lawyer for the NAACP
In 1965, affirmative actions by an executive order that advise private companies and institution that got federal money to reserve a % of vacant positions/jobs for non white minorities, including women. It created what came to be known as a system of Quotas. However what can be noticed is the fragmentation of the Civil right movement. Some black people are unhappy especially black people living in big cities and this lead to riots. → august 65, riot in Los Angeles, in a neighborrod called Watts. Those riots started after an incident between a black ma and white policeman. Riots that led to the death of 64 people, most of them were black and 100 wounded. That neighborroud was badly damaged. There were riots in Chicago, Cleveland and other cities. Summer 67, once again riots and in cities. They took place in big cities and in the ghettos of big cities. → King's non violent tactic worked in .... At that time 70% of the population lived in big cities and among them were many black people. → Radicalisum appearing within the civil right movement with a slogan: "Black power". White people started being excluded from organisations (SNCC) led by a leader Stokely Carmichael. Some black people started to be violent against white people, including the use of gun.
We have 2 factors point to the change: Malcom X and his black muslin movement (extremist murdered in 1965), and a movement called Black pampers (founded in 1966 by Boby Seale and Huey P Newton) → its members used to carry guns in public and it terrified people.
The black power movement was only followed by minority of black people. The rest of the black population still followed the King but the radicalism had an impact on the movement. It pushed King to look at the situation of black people also in guettos. These people needed houses too and jobs. At the end of the 60's, there is a new slogan appearing: "Black is beautiful". It was translated into a new haistyle → affro. However, people were getting less interested in the civil right movement, and more interested into affairs abroad. Johnson had experience but not much experience as far as foreign policy is concerned.
The Vietnam War
An incident which is said to be provoked by the Navy. Beginning of August 1964, 2 USA ships of the Coast of North Vietnam were said to have been attacked which meant an invasion. That took place in the Tonkin Golf. After that incident, it was the occasion for Congress to vote the "Tonkin Gold resolution" which is important → send troupes abroad. The US President authorised him to take all necessary mesure "to repel any armed attack against the forces of the USA and to prevent further agression". It led to escalation.
At the end of 1965, the nimber of US soldier in Vietnam if 184 000 and a year later is 385 000 and in 1968 is 500 000. The US air force started bombing Vietnam in 1965. They would also used deloliant (to kill plants). Sometimes, US planes were hit by missiles and their pilot could be captured (happened to John MacKain). Some of them were released 8 years later.
On TV, everyday US people could watch the war. There were no censorship. The number of US casualties were announced everyweek. They also learned what used to be known as "body count" which was the number of ennemies killed in action.
Inspite of this, generals and general Westmoreland said that they were making progress... Something prove that the US news were wrong. End of January1968, there is a kind of celebration, there was an invasion "The tet offensive" → the North Vietnamien attacked South Vietnam. They managed to occupy some part of Saigan. They also managed to occupy part of the US ambassy. This proved that there were problems in Vietnam and the Usa wasn't winning. USA counterattacked and pushed the attackers back. It had a bad effect on Johnson → declined populatiry (40% and it went down to 27%).
The impact of the Vietnam war in the USA
It was seen live on TV and you could see the image of dead bodies of US soldiers. Many people started asking themselves questions: "is it possible to win ?" then "Are we the good or the bad guys ?". The war was also costing a lot of money (1968: to kill one ennemy, it costed 322 000$ and to help one person, USA spend 53$). Then more and more US, turned against the war (end of 60's). There are demonstrations leading to clashed between studants and police, or student and universties authorities. There were the developpement of movements against the war: the SDS (students for a democratic society) or the FSM (Free speech movement). We have a problem among soldiers: veterans started coming back home. They started telling young men what was happening in Vietnam and this frightened them. Some of them refused to go to Vietnam (military services) = Draft evader (half a million). They fled to Canada and many of them started to live there.
Jonhson felt more and more isolated and he understood that the main issue of the Presidential election would be Vietnam and probably it was impossible for him to win. In march 1968, he made up his mind and declared that he wouldn't run for the election. The end of his presidency is marked by dramatic events. In april 1968, there was the assassination of Martin Luther King in Memphis Tennessy and it shocked the nation. Another murder shocked the nation: June 1968, Robert Kennedy who was running Presidency, was shot and killed by Sihan Sihran reproched Kennedy of helping Juish people. The democratic party had a convention in Aug 1968 that nominated a candidate: H. Humphrey. Young people demonstrated against the Vietnam war oitside the democratic... It led to a brutal repression by the Chicago police. Many people were gased... → bad publicity of the democratic party because people saw this on TV.
Many people held Johnson and democrat responsible for the war. Facing them are the Republican who are well-organised and developped a new tactic: to get the votes of the Blue collar workers in the North and the mid-west (were not happy with the situation) as well as something new: they tried and got the vote of the whites in the Southern state (and it still the case nowaday). The canadidate was Richard Nikson (used to be Eisenhower prime minister) → image of Golden years. He made a promise: peace with honor. He promised and people thought he would bring prosperity back to USA. He won the election but he had to face a democratic controlled Congress. There was a 3rd candidate called Georges Wallace and he was a famous governor (of Alabama) and he was against the Civil rights. In the South, he got a higher percentage.
The Vietnam war prevented Johnson from succedding his great society program.