CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS
The term civilization means the level of development at which people live together peacefully in communities. It is associated with high levels of political, social and economic organization. Ancient civilization refers to the first settled and stable communities that became the basis for later states, nations and empires. From around 5000 BC mankind changed from hunting and gathering to agricultural production. This caused a rapid expansion of population. This was followed by urbanization in Mesopotamia around 3500 BC. It was at this time that mankind invented civilization. The urban revolution was a result of favourable geographical features such as Tigris-Euphrates, Nile, Indus, Yellow (Hwang Ho) river valleys which made production of food easy. Another explanation for urbanization was that people had the knowledge and motivation to respond to challenges in their environment. People in these river valleys learnt to organize themselves to solve problems facing human settlements and in the process invented civilization. Through trade, migration, conquest and other forms of interaction ideas of civilization spread to other areas, resulting in the emergence of yet more advanced civilizations, for example, Greece and Rome.
Some characteristics of civilization include creation of permanent urban and administration centres, invention of political, social and economic institutions to address man’s basic needs such as food, shelter and security; external trade; a hierarchical system of classes; the development of arts and science, development of religious practices, and the invention of a written language for communication, record keeping and the transmission of culture. According to historians, civilization first developed in Mesopotamia and Egypt, although there are suggestions that the earliest civilization could have developed in China.
MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILISATION
The word Mesopotamia is Greek for land between two rivers. The civilization of Mesopotamia developed between Rivers Euphrates and Tigris in Sumer. Sumer or Babylonia was the lower part of Mesopotamia, also present day Iraq. Sumerians were the most influential in Mesopotamia. Here civilization developed around 3000 BC.
Factors for the rise of civilization in Mesopotamia
Civilisation emerged in Mesopotamia because the soil provided surplus food. This led to the setting up of settlements in villages and urban centres. Settlements led to the rise in population. There was development of urban centres. Urban centres were a result of interaction between different people. Most urban centres evolved from villages as a result of farming and irrigation which produced a stable food supply. The stable food supply led to rise in population. Some people gave up farming and engaged in other activities which contributed to political, social and economic innovations. Gradually urban centres developed into city states. By 3000 BC the people of Mesopotamia had made contact with other peoples and cultures in the Fertile Crescent. This facilitated exchange of ideas which resulted in political, social and economic innovations.
Characteristics of Mesopotamian Civilization
The civilization of Mesopotamia was characterized by several innovations. This marked advancement in political, social and economic organization.
Political organization
The Sumerians developed a form of government known as the city-state. The city-state comprised a town and the surrounding land. People believed that city-states belonged to god or gods. This was why they were ruled by Priests. Apart from handling issues of worship, priests governed the city. However, the city-states were not united because of rivalry. Warfare between cities eventually led to the rise of kings called Lugals, whose authority replaced city- state rulers. Sumer became a centralized state with a common culture and centralised government. By 2735 BC most of Sumer was under one king, Lugalzaggisi of Umma. Sumerian society was divided into various social classes: the elite, free men and slaves. Elites included officials, priests and warriors. Under the elites were free men. These included artisans and professionals. Slaves were the lowest class.
Agriculture
Agriculture was the main activity. Ditches were constructed for irrigation. Agriculture was improved by the introduction of the plough. Sumerians grew grains, vegetables and dates. They kept domestic animals that included cows, sheep, goats and oxen to pull carts and chariots. They grew flax which was used to make linen and also produced woolen products. All land belonged to the god of the city-state and was farmed on his behalf. However, some of the land was rented.
Trade
The production of enough food enabled people to work as traders and artisans. Sumerians traded with people in the Middle East before 3000 BC. Traders had agents in distant places while others moved from town to town vending Sumerian goods. These included metal products, textiles, pottery, agricultural products among others.
Architecture
Sumerians had well-planned and built structures made of sun dried bricks. Besides, they invented many architectural designs, for example, the arc (a curved structure). They also built rounded roofs shaped like domes. The most famous of Sumerian buildings are the Ziggurats or holy mountains. Ziggurats were temples with seven stories, the topmost of which served as a shrine for a god.
Science and engineering
In science and engineering Sumerians developed and used the wheel. They also developed algebra and used a system of numbers based on 60. They divided the circle in 360 degrees, each degree in 60 minutes and each minute in 60 seconds. This marked the development of the principle of the compass or watch/clock. They also developed a calendar with 12 months based on the movements of the moon (lunar calendar).
Education
Education in Sumer was very important. Only boys from rich families went to school. Schools were located in temples and run by priests. They trained officials needed in palaces and temples. The main subjects were writing and spelling. Scribes spent twelve years to learn cuneiform script. Students learned to write by copying religious books and songs. They were also taught history, mathematics, foreign languages and making maps. Advanced education included medicine and surgery. They also studied divination (interpretation of the future).
Writing
The expansion of towns and growth of wealth lead to the need for a system of keeping records. This was why Sumerians developed a system of writing known as cuneiform. In this type of writing wedge shaped characters were imprinted on wet clay tablets using a pointed stick called stylus. Tablets were then put in the sun to dry. There were about 600 cuneiform signs. Writing had the advantage of aiding memory and transfer of knowledge. It also helped people add on previous knowledge and this led to more discoveries. Letters, contracts, business records and books written in cuneiform have been excavated. An example is the Epic of Gilgamesh which contains myths about the lives of ancient people in Mesopotamia.
Law
The discovery of writing led to the emergence of written law. The recording of laws was necessary for order in Mesopotamia because there was a lot of chaos. The writing of laws ensured that they outlived the ruler. In 2500 BC Uruinimgina passed laws to protect the powerless. In 1792 BC Sumeria was conquered by Hummurabi who introduced the Hammurabi Code. This code introduced harsh punishments so as to promote order in society. A man who destroyed someone’s eye lost his own and a son who beat his father had his hand cut off. Many of Hammurabi’s laws aimed at protecting the powerless, for example, women and children from unfair treatment. Hammurabi’s laws also aimed at preserving social order. This was why there were laws and punishments for different classes. The code had 282 laws which controlled all aspects of life, for example, agriculture, irrigation, wages, hours of work, working conditions, contracts among others. The laws were enforced by judges supervised by the king’s officials.
Religion
Sumerians believed in many gods. Their gods were represented by objects such as the sun, moon and sky. They did not believe in punishment after death. They buried their dead with personal property such as jewelry so that spirits of the dead could not return to disturb them.
LEGACY OF MESOPOTAMIAN CIVILISATION
The Mesopotamian civilizations made many contributions to mankind. These innovations have continued to influence development in the contemporary world.
Science and mathematics and agriculture
Sumerian scientists made many contributions in mathematics and science. They developed algebra and methods for measuring distance, area and quantity. Their knowledge of astronomy was used to design the calendar. They developed a number system based on 60 which formed the basis for making watches/clocks and compasses. In agriculture Sumerians developed the system of irrigation and introduced the use of ploughs. They also domesticated crops such as the oil palm.
Literature and writing
The invention of writing known as cuneiform helped preserve knowledge which also allowed the preservation of data, religious traditions, beliefs and rituals, preservation of customs and collection of myths and stories. Mesopotamia contributed to the literary works which are still available today. An example is the Epic of Gilgamesh which talks about friendship, relations between human beings and gods plus the meaning of life and death. These stories helped people reflect on moral issues.
Architecture and metal work
Sumerians contributed a lot in the science of building. They built houses made of sun dried bricks and introduced structural designs such as arches and domes. These have been used to improve architecture. Mesopotamian metal workers discovered bronze by mixing tin and copper. They also started the use of iron. The use of bronze and iron resulted in stronger implements. This improved production, for example, in agriculture.
The wheel and vehicles
Mesopotamians discovered the use of the wheel around 3500BC. Apart from potters’ wheels, wheels were used in the manufacture of wheeled carts and wagons which helped improve transportation of goods. Mesopotamians also built sailing ships. This improved water transport and trade with India, Persia, and Arabia among others.
Government and law
Through city-states and centralization of power, Mesopotamians created institutions which extended authority in their communities. This idea was borrowed by other states and helped create stable societies. Hammurabi’s code of law provided a background for setting up written laws in different countries. This helped improve systems of justice.
Conclusion
The emergence of civilization in Mesopotamia was a result of attempts to solve problems that faced people in Sumer. It resulted in many innovations which have helped improve livelihoods in different parts of the world.
References:
Bentley, H.J & Ziegler, F.H (2006), Traditions Encounters: A Global Perspective of the Past, Volume A, From the Beginning to 100, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Brinton, C., Christopher, J.B & Wolf, L.R (1967), A History of Civilisation, Vol.1, Prehistory to 1715, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Mazour, A.G., Peoples, J.A & Rabb, K.T (1983), Peoples and Nations: A World History, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 1, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
ISLAMIC CIVILISATION
Introduction
Islamic Civilization started in Arabia and spread to different parts of the world. It impacted people’s lives politically, economically and socially. Islam, which means submission to Allah, is a religion founded by Prophet Muhammad PBUH in Arabia in 622 AD. At first Arabic reflected Arabic cultural practices but later adopted elements from Persia, Greece, India among others. Islamic culture totally changed the lives of those who adopted it. It had considerable political and economic influence over a big part of the world.
Prophet Muhammad
Prophet Muhammad was born among Bedouin Arabs in 570AD. He later established himself as a trader. At that time Arabs believed in many gods. However, Muhammad was convinced that there was one God, Allah. At age 40 Muhammad experienced a vision where an angel instructed him to reform Arabic religious practices. At different times he received more than 114 revelations. These revelations were recited by Muhammad and later compiled into the Quran by his followers. However, his teaching was opposed by the people of Mecca and Muhammad had to flee to Medina in 632.AD, an action also called Hegira. Later, he returned and converted Mecca to Islam by 632 most of Arabia had converted to Islam.
The Islamic faith
The Islamic faith or teachings of Muhammad are centred on the belief that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his prophet. Islam is guided by the Quran, the Holy Book which contains the most important teachings of Islam. Apart from the Quran, there is Hadith or collections of Muhammad saying and actions which are used to interpret the Quran. Muslims are also guided by Sharia, a code of law based on Quran and Hadith. Sharia offers guidance on all aspects of life. As a result of Sharia, Islam became more than a religion but a way of life.
Islam is based on five of obligations or pillars. Muslims must recite the words “there is no God except Allah and Muhammad is his prophet” five times a day, pray five times a day while facing Mecca, make a pilgrimage to Mecca, give alms to the poor and fast during the month of Ramadhan.
Muhammad taught that he was the last prophet from Allah. He also taught virtues of humility, justice, temperance, generosity, tolerance, obedience to authority and courage. He permitted slavery but slaves were to be treated kindly. He did not allow alcoholic drinks and pork. He praised holy war or jihad against the enemies of Islam. He directed his followers to pray together in the mosque every Friday. He allowed men to marry at least four wives and to treat them justly.
The spread of Islam
Muhammad’s message was at first not welcomed in his home town of Mecca. He therefore fled to Medina where he was welcomed in 622 AD .The flight to Medina marked the beginning of the Islamic calendar. In 630 AD Muhammad and his followers attacked Mecca and converted the people to Islam. From Mecca other towns in Arabia were also converted. In 630 AD Muhammad chose Abu Bakr as successor or Caliph. Caliphs later conquered Arabia Palestine, North Africa, India and Spain where people became Muslims.
Other Characteristics of the Islamic Civilisation
Apart from religion as already discussed above, The Islamic civilization had other important features.
Government
The Islamic Government was headed by the Caliph. He was the supreme civil, political and religious leader. The Caliph was first elected but later became hereditary. The empire was divided into three caliphates with headquarters in Baghdad, Cairo and Cordova (Spain).
Trade and industry
Muhammad encouraged trade. Arabs traded with India and China. There was trade across the Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Trade led to the rise in manufacturing. The Islamic empire produced textiles, carpets, pottery, glassware, jewelry, perfumes, metal products and paper.
Science, mathematics and education
Muslim scholars adopted the best ideas from earlier civilizations, for example science and philosophy from Asia, Greece and Rome. They wrote books and encyclopedias and produced the finest geographers and navigators. From South East Asia they also borrowed the triangular sail which improved movement for ships. They also borrowed the compass from China which also improved sea transport. They perfected the astrolabe (an instrument to determine the height of stars and planets).They added to medical knowledge. Rhazhes of Baghdad, a Muslim physician, wrote about surgery, diseases of the eye, smallpox and measles and compiled an encyclopedia of medicine. In Mathematics Muslims perfected algebra and introduced the use of Arabic numerals. In geography they perfected map making. They studied astrology (influence of stars on people’s lives).They established universities at Cairo, Cordova, Baghdad and other places. Muslims also established schools where elementary education and Islamic religion were taught.
Agriculture
Arabs introduced new crops to regions which they brought under their control. These included wheat, cotton, rice, sugarcane, various fruits and vegetables among others. The crops survived well in hot conditions and this resulted in increased production. They also introduced irrigation, use of fertilizers and crop rotation. They produced agricultural manuals where farmers learned new techniques.
Banking
The Islamic world operated banks which provided money lending services and exchange of various currencies. The banks established branches in different parts of the Islamic world where cheques could be used instead of cash.
LEGACY OF ISLAM
The Islamic civilization made many contributions to the world. Today, more than one thousand years later, innovations in Islam continue to influence people’s lives all over the world.
Religion and culture
The conversion of many peoples to Islam served as a uniting factor which promoted political, social and economic development. Millions of people all over the world faithfully follow the Islamic religion. Islam influenced the foundation of empires, cities, innovations in science and arts, agriculture and industry among other things. Islamic culture and politics continue to influence international relations more than ever. The Arabic language which is associated with Islam is widely used all over the world as an international language in diplomacy, government, trade, education, technology among others. The Islamic system of education, literature, dress, customs, architecture, art and music continue to be part of people’s lives all over the world.
Agriculture
Arabs raised the level of agriculture in the areas they controlled. They introduced improved agricultural practices, irrigation and other ways of conserving and distributing water. They also introduced new crops such as oranges, lemons cotton, rice and others which are still economically important.
Transport
Muslims introduced the sailing ship and constructed bigger ships capable of crossing oceans. They introduced the compass and use of maps and navigations kills which were later adopted by European explorers. They also introduced the use of camels for transport in areas they ruled. In addition, they maintained roads used by earlier rulers, for example, the Silk Road. This improved on both transport and trade.
Trade and industry
Arabs established trade networks that linked the Islamic world. They also established commercial centres which developed into cities which still survive today. They opened land and sea routes which facilitated the exchange of goods. They also introduced business skills and banking services such as the use of the cheque which have been adopted by people all over the world. Arabs established industries that produced various goods. These included jewelry, leather work, book-binding, metal work among others.
Science and mathematics
The Islamic civilization has contributed many innovations in science to the modern world. Muslims have provided principles of medicine, hygiene and how to handle sickness based on the Quran. Islamic scholars borrowed medical practices from Greece, India and other places which they improved and passed on to the contemporary world. In mathematics, Muslim scholars founded algebra and new methods for computation. They made innovations in geometry and developed Arabic numeral which has made mathematics simpler. In Architecture Arabs made improvements in building techniques. They built magnificent mosques and other structures whose style still influences building in many regions of the world.
References:
Bentley, H.J & Ziegler, F.H (2006), Traditions Encounters: A Global Perspective of the Past, Volume A, From the Beginning to 100, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Brinton, C., Christopher, J.B & Wolf, L.R (1967), A History of Civilisation, Vol.1, Prehistory to 1715, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Mazour, A.G., Peoples, J.A & Rabb, K.T (1983), Peoples and Nations: A World History, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 1, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
RENAISSANCE AND HUMANISM
Introduction
The renaissance was the rebirth or revival of knowledge which started in Italy in the 13th century and later spread to the rest of Europe. It was aimed at reorganizing European society according to ancient Roman and Greek standards. It was influenced by humanism; the belief in the value of the individual It was believed that an individual had dignity and worth and capacity to change the world. Humanists believed society could be reorganized by borrowing ideas from Roman and Greek civilizations. During this period there was revival in the study of classical literature and art. Greek and Roman classics were read for pleasure. People looked for objectivity and wanted to explain life from the realistic point of view. They therefore abandoned life defined according to the religious view. The achievements of the individual became very important. People no longer focused on the glorification of God, but their personal achievements. Hence there was a shift from religion to secularism Education was seen as a way of improving individual talents. Renaissance ideas had lasting impact on European society, marking the beginning of the modern era in history and end to the medieval period.
Origins
Renaissance had its beginnings in political and cultural developments in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries. Italian scholars like patriarchy believed that their age marked a turning point in history and an end to the medieval period. They believed their achievements in arts were comparable to those of ancient Greece and Rome- because of aiming at remarkable achievements in the arts. Other Italian scholars like Leonardo Bruni wanted a republican government and looked at the ancient Roman Republic as a model. These ideas later spread to other parts of Europe where scholars like Desiderius Erasmus of Netherlands pointed out the need to reform Christianity. This could be done through education based on ancient Roman and Greek classics. The location of Italy which favoured access to Mediterranean trade led to the rise of prosperous cities and towns where wealth was used to support political and cultural development. It is believed by historians that these developments in Italy and Europe led to the beginning of the modern age.
Developments in the Renaissance
Several developments marked the age of Renaissance in Europe. They include political, social and economic changes which totally transformed the world.
Economic and Social Organization
The civilization of the Renaissance was based on wealthy cities and rulers who depended on income from their subjects in urban areas. The prosperous trade facilitated the spread of ideas and the renewal of political and cultural activities. The expansion of trade led to the emergence of tours which became leading commercial and cultural centres. There was development of banking systems that financed various commercial enterprises. This resulted in wealth which was used to finance political and cultural activities. The explorations of the 15th century which opened the route to India and America created great competition for territory between different European powers. This led to increased wealth. The economic changes facilitated the spread of Renaissance to other countries.
Following increased commercial activity, there was growth in urbanization. This provided an environment that favoured innovation in all aspects of life. Many peasants migrated to towns where they were dominated by the merchant class. In the rural areas serfdom was gradually replaced by a system where peasants paid rent for land.
Politics
From around 500 AD when the Roman Empire collapsed, the Catholic Church was the only uniting factor in Europe. However, the growth of commercial activities led to the economic unification of Europe. During the Renaissance there were less external attacks and European leaders strengthened their power. There was decline of the Holy Roman Empire and the power of the pope. In Italy towns developed into city states. In France, England and Spain, strong centralized states emerged. During this period, political developments were explained in terms of human but not Devine control. Power was considered a monopoly of political but not religious leaders.
Religion
During the Renaissance, the power and prestige of the church declined. This was because the church could not adapt to the new changes. For example religious leaders were used to peasants and could not meet the needs of the new urban class. The selling of religious services, contradiction of Biblical teachings and immorality of religious leaders damaged the prestige of the church. In the 14th century the church was humiliated when the French king arrested the Pope and imprisoned him at Avignon. Because of these weaknesses some people wanted the church abolished. John Wycliffe of Britain and John Huss of Bohemia attacked the church in their writings. Reformers wanted to change the church through education and not religious faith.
Humanism
Humanism was the philosophy that guided the Renaissance. It focused on the fact that human beings were rational and emphasized the respect and importance of the individual. This idea influenced the development of the Renaissance. Unlike education at the time which aimed at fulfilling the needs of the church, humanism prepared students for all possibilities of life. Humanism believed in transformation of society through education. Humanists applied classical teachings to problems. They found that classics encouraged patriotism and offered practical history lessons. They began writing in their local languages and this provided a base for development of literature. Humanists showed that it was right to marry and participate in public affairs. They also said that it was possible to lead a successful life without following religious ideas. This refocused learning from religious to secular ideas.
Science
As a result of humanist scholarship, scientific writings of the past were read. New scientific ideas based on mathematical concepts developed. Renaissance scholars based their scientific enquiry on objectivity and careful observation. This led to many scientific innovations. There were discoveries in navigation, astronomy and mathematics. The invention of the printing press and the compass among others were a result of scientific work during the Renaissance.
Arts
There were great achievements in literature, art, architecture and music during the Renaissance. Painting and art were no longer associated with decoration of churches but with intellectual achievements. Greek and Roman classics inspired arts. Mathematics and geometry were used to achieve proportion and perspective in works of art. This marked the merging of art and science that was characteristic of Renaissance. In architecture buildings were remodeled according to Roman and Greek features such as arches and columns. Music ceased to be a monopoly of the church and was used for public entertainment. Painters changed from religious themes to presentation of nature. Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo produced the finest pieces of art. The wealthy demanded high quality works of art and this encouraged innovation. In literature there was demand for works in local languages and encouragement of individual achievement. William Shakespeare, Niccolo Machiavelli among others wrote great literary works.
Conclusion
The Renaissance led to cultural transformation in Europe. Developments in learning led to scientific and literary innovations in the 17th century. The humanist idea that man has the capacity to change the world promoted the development of science and technology Renaissance ideas provided the basis for republicanism and freedom and respect for individual rights. This influenced the emergence of modern political systems.
References:
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 1, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Mazour, A.G., Peoples, J.A & Rabb, K.T (1983), Peoples and Nations: A World History, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Bentley, H.J & Ziegler, F.H (2006), Traditions Encounters: A Global Perspective of the Past, Volume A, From the Beginning to 100, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Brinton, C., Christopher, J.B & Wolf, L.R (1967) A History of Civilisation, Vol.1, Prehistory to 1715, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
REFORMATION
Introduction
Reformation was a 16th century revolution in the Christian church which destroyed the power and influence of the medieval church. This resulted in the establishment of the Protestant Church. The Protestant Revolution greatly impacted the political, economic and cultural set up of Europe. The reformation was largely a result of factors in Europe stretching back several centuries.
Political factors
There was a power struggle between political leaders and the pope for several centuries. This antagonism resulted in the rise of nationalistic feelings. People were opposed to paying taxes and control from Rome, preferring submission to leaders from their own countries. Political leaders also wanted to break away from papal control. This conflict reached its climax in the 14th and 15th centuries, resulting into Reformation.
Weaknesses in the church
There were controversial issues in the Catholic Church which attracted public condemnation. Such contradictions included sale of indulgences (forgiving sins in exchange for money), immorality and illiteracy of religions leaders among other weaknesses. The imprisonment of the pope at Avignon in the 14th Century led to a conflict that divided the church and greatly damaged its image, leading to the need for reform.
Work of reformers
The contradictions in the Catholic Church led to the rise of reformers such Zwingli, John Huss and Martin Luther who led protests against the excesses of the Catholic Church. In the 14th century John Wycliffe translated the Bible to English and preached against the evils of the Catholic Church. This led to popular revolt and opposition of the Catholic Church. Opposition was led by John Huss in Bohemia, Zwingli and Calvin in Switzerland and Martin Luther in Germany. The protests provoked wars and divisions that led to the emergence of the Protestant Church.
Economic factors
The church collected a lot of taxes from the people and their leaders all over Europe. In addition, the Church had a lot of wealth which was untaxed. The Church also owned a big portion of land which was about a fifth or third of all the lands in Europe. This attracted anger from leaders and the poor peasants who demanded changes in the power and conduct of the church.
Humanism
The revival of learning of ancient Greek and Roman ideas in the 15th century in Italy that later spread to the rest of Europe removed the power and control of the church over education. This enabled ordinary people apart from religious leaders to study classics, the Bible and other books where the church based its teachings. This learning was greatly facilitated by the discovery of the printing press which caused wide circulation of new ideas in Europe. Humanists related the new ideas to the practices of the Catholic Church and what they read from the Bible. On the basis of what they found out from reading the Bible reformers like John Calvin and John Wycliffe concluded that it was the Bible and not the Church that was the source of religious authority. This further weakened the power and influence of the church, prompting the need for reform.
The spread of Protestantism
The Protestant Revolution started in Germany when in 1517 Martin Luther published 95 theses that challenged the teaching of the Catholic Church. He argued that religious authority was based on individual faith and the guidance of the Bible but not church teachings. Martin Luther was then threatened by the church and went into hiding for a year. During this period he translated the New Testament into German and produced other works which circulated widely in Europe. His writings led to protests by German princes and peasants against economic exploitation by the Catholic Church. There were conflicts between German states and as a result the north embraced Protestantism while the south remained Catholic. Martin Luther’s revolution led to a permanent break up of the Catholic Church.
In the Scandinavian countries of Denmark Norway and Sweden the kings ordered their subjects to convert to Lutheranism and abolished any relationship between their countries and the pope.
In Switzerland religious reform was started by Huldreich Zwingli who preached against abuses of the Catholic Church. He preached that the Bible was the only source of moral authority and tried to remove all religious practices not mentioned in the Bible. From 1523-1525 he abolished mass, celibacy of priests and monks and burned religious relics. These changes were supported by the wealthy because they wanted independence from Rome and German influence. Zwingli’s actions caused religious wars between Protestants and Catholics; in one of these wars he was killed.
Later, the Reformation in Switzerland was led by John Calvin; a Protestant theologian who fled France and settled in Geneva in 1536. Calvin strictly implemented the already made religious reforms. He also introduced new changes like strict discipline in the community and election of church leaders. All citizens were provided education to encourage the reading of the Bible. He founded a university in Geneva to train pastors and organized the different Protestant beliefs into one system. As a result of his writing and influence his ideas were adopted by all Protestant churches throughout Europe.
In France Reformation was pioneered by humanists under the leadership of Lefebvre d’Etaples who believed in justification by faith alone. His ideas spread widely in France. However, following harassment, his followers escaped to Switzerland. On their return they organized a national Protestant church known as Huguenots. The emergence of Huguenots with a large following led to civil war and massacres. By the Edict of Nantes in 1598 Protestantism was allowed in France.
In Scotland as a result of the teaching of John Wycliffe people became opposed to the Catholic Church. Influential Scots wanted to use the reformation as a way to achieve independence and religious reform. Under the leadership of John Knox, Calvinism was established in Scotland as a national religion known as the Scottish Presbyterian Church.
In England, the reformation was led by Henry VIII who decided to break away from papal control for political reasons. His wife Catherine could not produce him a male heir and the pope refused to grant him devoice. After consulting reformers like Zwingli who considered his marriage with Catherine null, he divorced her. As a result, the pope excommunicated him. However, in 1534 the English parliament passed an act that appointed the king head of the Church of England. In this way, a national Anglican church was established. More laws were passed by which all links with the pope were stopped. Also monasteries were closed and their property confiscated. However, Catholic practices were retained until the reign of Elizabeth I when Protestant teaching and practices were adopted.
Impact of the Reformation
The Protestant Revolution permanently changed the face of Europe. In many ways the political, economic and cultural impact was irreversible. Some changes were constructive and others destructive.
Politically, the Catholic Church permanently lost the power and influence it had imposed on Europe for many centuries. The division between Catholics and Protestants was irreversible. There was also development of nationalism that favoured the setting up of independent political institutions. This contributed to religious and cultural independence as well. There was development of powerful centralized states where kings exploited religious differences to consolidate their rule. This was done by reducing the power of the nobility and increasing control of subjects. This made rulers more powerful than before. The Protestant doctrine of individual decision led to the establishment of democratic political institutions based on the choice of voters. This marked the beginning of democratic governments in the modern era.
Economically the Protestant philosophy of belief in individual choice and the teaching that happiness can be experienced on earth and not necessarily after death promoted the spirit of hard work. This marked the beginning of capitalism. Capitalism was further promoted by the destruction of the medieval system of government. This led to improvements in trade and manufacturing and the creation of more wealth.
The breaking of the monopoly of the Catholic Church over knowledge helped scientists challenge contemporary views. Scientists developed an understanding of society based on reason and not Christianity. This resulted in many scientific innovations and contributed to the beginning of the scientific and industrial revolutions.
Culturally, as a result of the reformation, there were major developments in national languages and literature. This was because of the wide circulation of religious literature which was written in local languages instead of Latin. Education became popular as a result of Protestant leaders who promoted education as a strategy to empower individuals to read the Bible, especially in England, Switzerland and Germany.
The unity of the Christian church which had provided common identity for the rest of Europe came to an end. Religion ceased to be a monopoly of religious leaders and was identified with people’s beliefs. In addition, people who were formerly united were divided by religion. For example, in Germany the north was Protestant and the south Catholic.
The Catholic Church convened the council of Trent between 1545 to 1563 in an attempt to make reforms so as to convince Protestants to return to the Catholic Church and stop others from running away. St Ignatius Loyola founded the society of Jesus also known as Jesuits, committed to reform and promotion of the image of the Catholic church.
There was rise in religious intolerance where people in different sects harassed others with different beliefs. There was also witch-hunting where thousand of suspected witches, especially women, were killed. For a long time there were civil wars and wars between different countries where Catholics fought Protestants. There were civil wars in France, Switzerland and Germany. In 1588 Spain organized an attack to force England to return to Catholicism but it was defeated. The climax was the Thirty Years War of 1618 to 1648. In this war, the Holy Roman Emperor of Germany attempted to force Bohemia to return to Catholicism. This attracted the intervention of many European countries, leading to violence, death and destruction of Economies.
Conclusion
The Protestant Revolution which had its roots in the medieval period and the Renaissance totally transformed the European continent. This was not limited to religion but also to cultural and economic changes. This marked the beginning of the modern age with innovations in science and industry.
References:
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 1, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Mazour, A.G., Peoples, J.A & Rabb, K.T (1983), Peoples and Nations: A World History, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Bentley, H.J & Ziegler, F.H (2006), Traditions Encounters: A Global Perspective of the Past, Volume A, From the Beginning to 100, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Brinton, C., Christopher, J.B & Wolf, L.R (1967) A History of Civilisation, Vol.1, Prehistory to 1715, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
EXPLORATION AND EXPLOITATION OF AMERICA
Introduction
The exploration and exploitation of America was part of the Renaissance. During this period of European expansion European knowledge and power of the world was greatly expanded. Exploration and exploitation were closely linked. The result of exploration was conquest and slavery. As a result, Europeans gained more power. Their exploration succeeded in establishing a global system of trade dominated by Western Europe. It resulted in the modern global economy. This has resulted enriching the west while impoverishingAfrica and the rest of the south.
Early Exploration
The first attempt to colonize the New World, as America was to be called, took place around 1000 AD when Vikings or Norsemen sailed from Britain to Greenland. They later established a colony called Vineland in present day Newfoundland. While in Vineland, the Vikings studied the people, animal and plant life. However, Vineland colony was short lived as they were unable to sustain it.
Over the next five centuries, Europeans heard of the Vikings’ attempts to colonies North America. However, no efforts could be taken to colonise America. This was because of several factors. First European trade was mainly concentrated around the Mediterranean region and there was no need to look for alternative trading areas. Europeans could also not easily find adequate resources to support sailing expeditions across the Atlantic. In addition, there was little motivation for sailing westwards in unknown waters which were considered dangerous. Besides, new overland routes to the Far East had been discovered and there was no need for alternative routes. During this period it was also not possible to try out new ideas because of the power and influence of the Catholic Church which tended to suppress any innovation.
In the 1500s the influence of the Catholic Church’s control of ideas collapsed and this led to Renaissance, Protestant Reformation and Catholic counter-reformation which promoted the growth of learning and emergence of new ideas. The recognition and promotion of individual ability in particular favoured ideas for exploration.
With the collapse of the power of the Catholic Church new nation-states emerged. They included Portugal, Spain and France. In these states power was centralized in kings who supported exploration. Similarly, the new nation-states wanted to find new territories so as to increase their power and prestige. The new nation states also wanted to remove the monopoly of the eastern trade by the northern Italian states of Genoa, Venice and Florence that controlled much of the eastern trade. However, from mid 15th century wars broke out between Europe and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. This disrupted trade and created the need for an alternative route to the east.
The collapse of the power of the Catholic Church, which had controlled ideas for many centuries also led to the emergence of Protestantism which promoted growth of new learning and promotion of individual or independent thinking. The Renaissance also developed the idea of man’s capacity to change and control the world. All this promoted conditions that favoured exploration. In addition, as a result of efforts by ocean navigators, there was increased need for knowledge and power over the world. Also religious conflicts resulting from the Protestant Revolution forced large numbers of people to seek for new places of settlement where they could have religious liberty.
The desire for trade was a major factor led to exploration. Marco Polo’s journey to China had led to the discovery of Chinese and Islamic civilizations. This attracted a lot of trading activity from Europe and many exotic products found their way into Europe. However, traders who controlled the trade routes over land benefited most from this trade. This created the need for an alternative access route to the East. In the new nation-states there was rapid population growth. There was need for more space for settlement and resources to support the big populations. This led to the need to find new lands where people could be resettled and at the same time access resources to support the populations.
The emergence of new technology in navigation supported the need for exploration. Larger and faster ships which could carry people and cargo over long distances were built. Invention of new navigation equipment such as the astrolabe and improvements in the compass made sea travel possible.
Exploration was also a result of ideas that existed in Europe existed in Europe, even before the Vikings exploration, about wealthy civilizations in the west. These civilizations were described as barbaric and evil. Related to this was the hatred for non-Christians that resulted from the Crusades against Muslims during the Middle Ages. It was therefore believed that it was God’s plan to convert pagans or kill them and capture their property. This encouraged ideas for exploration.
The desire for exploration was also encouraged by early geographers who suggested that it was easier to travel to India and China westwards. By then the existence of America was not known.
Exploration of America
Different European countries engaged in the exploration of America, resulting in conquest and exploitation.
In 1492 Spain facilitated Christopher Columbus to find an alternative route to Asia. As a result, he reached Bahamas in the Caribbean. In 1513 Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed Panama and reached the Pacific Ocean. Between of 1519-1521 Herman Cortez landed in Mexico.Pizzaro conquered Mexico. Other Spanish navigators explored California, North pacific coast and Alaska. In 1498 Amerigo Vespucci travelled to the southern part of the New World and it was named after him. Ferdinand Magellan also travelled south along the South American coast and crossed into the Pacific.
As a result of the activities of Prince Henry the Navigator, Portugal sent navigators to look for a sea route to India. Westwards, Pacheco’s voyage look him to South America. However, the information he collected was hidden to prevent competition with other navigators. More explorers were sent to America. Pedro Alvarez de Cabral established trade with West Indies while Gasper Corte Real reached Labrador.
Britain commissioned John Cabot to make several voyages to America. He reached Baffin Islands, Newfoundland, Greenland and Alaska. Queen Elizabeth I encouraged the exploration of the Islands north of Canada and a British colony was established in Newfoundland in 1583. In early 1600 efforts at British colonization increased, leading to the colonization of the modern United States of America
Among the French explorers, Jacque Cartier explored Canada and discovered River St Lawrence. In the 16th century France attempted to establish a colony in South-Eastern USA but was unsuccessful. French explorers also reached Mississippi River and the Great Lakes.
Among other European countries, the Dutch sent James Hudson who explored Greenland and Arctic Sea. They established a colony at Manhattan Island in 1624. Russia, led by Vitus Bering established that a strait existed between Russia and Alaska. Russian explorers also explored other places on the northern pacific coastline of America.
Exploitation of America
The exploitation of America by Europeans involved conquest and colonization of the indigenous people. This was followed by the establishment of political and economic systems that promoted exploitation of local products for trade with Europe. Aided by superior technology in form of guns, horses and sailing ships, low immunity to diseases of the local people and divided communities, Europeans found it easy to subdue the indigenous populations of America. This made it possible to exploit local resources.
The Spanish conquerors overthrew the Aztec and Inca empires and imposed their route in Mexico and Peru. The Spanish government was represented by a viceroy who was responsible to the king of Spain. One viceroy was stationed in New Mexico and other in Lima (Peru). However, because of transport constraints viceroys did not exercise much influence, several cities wire set up where Spanish colonists lived. However they depended on agriculture on their estates in rural areas. The coming of more migrant from Spain led territorial expansion and an improved nature of administration.
The Spanish found large quantities of gold and silver in their territories. They used large numbers of indigenous labourers as miners. This led to economic prosperity. One fifth of the proceeds from silver would be sent to Spain. Apart from mining, the Spanish carried out farming. They produced grapes, wheat and reared cattle and pigs. Indigenous people worked on the farms. However, Spanish colonists met a lot of resistance from the local people. This coupled with ill health due to harsh working conditions and epidemic diseases drastically reduced local populations. As a result, the Spanish had to import black slave labour from Africa.
By the Treaty of Todesiras signed between Portugal and Spain, the former could not claim land west of Cape Verde Islands except if it was not under a Christian country. As a result Portuguese established control over North Eastern South America which became known as Brazil. The king of Portugal decided to establish control over Brazil to stop other countries from claiming it. However, Portuguese control over Brazil became more effective with the establishment of sugar plantations. Due to epidemic diseases which weakened local populations the Portuguese decided to import slave labour from Africa. From 1500-1800 about 100,000 Portuguese colonists immigrated to America. This helped consolidate Portuguese control.
In the 17th century, the English, French and Dutch Sailors displaced the Spanish from some of their territories in North America. Here they occupied large expenses of land formerly used by local people as hunting grounds. It was also possible to occupy these lands as a result of genocides resulting from small pox and European wars of conquest. Unlike the Spanish and Portuguese colonies, French and English colonies were run by private individuals. However, there was some degree of control from their home countries. European settlers in North America mainly engaged in fur trade. They also grew crops like wheat, rice and indigo. However, there was difficulty in accessing labour. At first labourers were imported from Europe – mainly orphans, criminals and the unemployed. However, increased demand for labour led to the search for black slaves from Africa. In 1661 Virginia law recognized all black people as slaves.
Results of exploration and exploitation of America
The exploration and exploitation of America led to great changes. There was meeting of many people which led to various effects.
Social effects
Demographically, European exploration and exploitation led to the spread of epidemic diseases which reduced populations of America. The worst diseases included smallpox, measles and influenza. These diseases were unknown to America and easily destroyed the population because of low immunity. For example, as a result of smallpox Mexico lost 90% of the local population. Population in Mexico reduced from 17 million to 1.3 million. It is also reported that Columbus and his men contracted syphilis which they spread to the rest of the world.
Contact between Europe and America also led to migrations of large populations to America across the seas. Over 16 million Africans were carried to America to provide slave labour. At the same time millions of Africans perished on seas while Africans societies were destroyed. Many Europeans settled in places where epidemic diseases had wiped out local people in America.
The imposition of foreign influence led to the loss, of political, cultural and social traditions of indigenous populations Traditions disappeared because of genocide which caused disappearance of entire communities and partly led to loss of political, social and cultural traditions. Intermarriages between Europeans and local people led to people known as mestizo while blacks and Europeans produced mulattos. Society was divided in classes with immigrants from Europe at the top followed by individuals born of immigrants. Although there was mingling of French immigrants with local people this was not common in the English colonies of North America. The English discriminated black immigrants and this caused racism and segregation against blacks.
There were cross cultural exchanges as a result of the migrations of Africans to America. Africans introduced new forms of music, art, religion and social organization which had lasting impact on other races.
Christianity was established as a major religion in the Americans, largely replacing local beliefs. However some local religious practices survived.
Economic effects
As a result of contact with Europeans, wheat, horses, cattle, chicken among others were introduced to America. Formerly unknown crops were introduced in Europe, Asia and Africa. They included Maize, beans, cassava, tomatoes, pineapple, guava, pawpaw, pepper, among others. The introduction of new crops led to improved diets. This in turn contributed to rise in populations in different parts of the world.
European exploitation led to the emergence of global trade. European goods such as guns and textiles were exported to America. From America sugar, gold, silver, tobacco among others were carried to Europe. There was in increased volume of trade which led to the expansion and integration of global markets.
Political effects
Europeans engaged the natives of America in wars of conquest which led to loss of independence. For example the Spanish destroyed the civilizations of Incas and Aztecs and brought them under their control. French, British, and Dutch immigrants displaced local populations and set up colonies.
Conclusion
The European colonization of America was marked by the destruction of cultures and genocides of local populations. While it led to economic prosperity of white communities in America and Europe it caused enslavement of Africans and marked the beginning of global trade that continues to favour developed countries as developing countries face inequality and exploitation.
References:
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 1, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Mazour, A.G., Peoples, J.A & Rabb, K.T (1983), Peoples and Nations: A World History, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Bentley, H.J & Ziegler, F.H (2006), Traditions Encounters: A Global Perspective of the Past, Volume A, From the Beginning to 100, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Brinton, C., Christopher, J.B & Wolf, L.R (1967) A History of Civilisation, Vol.1, Prehistory to 1715, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
ENLIGHTENMENT PHILOSOPHERS OF THE 18TH CENTURY
The period before the French Revolution of 1789 is known as the Age of Enlightenment. This was because educated people in that period believed they were moving from centuries of darkness and ignorance into the age of enlightened reason, science and respect for humanity. This period is also called the Age of Reason. The age of Enlightenment was greatly influenced by ideas of thinkers or philosophers – also known as philosophes in France. The enlightenment philosophers were mainly based in France.
Main ideas of Enlightenment philosophers
The philosophers believed in the power of human reason, progress and civilization. They put emphasis on the discovery of truth through the observation of nature instead of conservative sources such as the Bible. They believed that through the application of reason there would be continuous progress in knowledge, technical innovations and morality. Philosophers of the 18th Century believed that knowledge is not inborn but results form experience and observation guided by reason. They also thought that through education humanity could be improved. In this period there was desire to investigate all ideas and values that existed from different perspectives. They wanted tolerance and equality of all people. Equality meant religious liberty, reducing of privileges enjoyed by the upper classes, equality before the law, fair taxes and participation in politics for the lower classes.
The philosophers saw the Catholic Church as the main source of enslavement for the human mind, although many of them did not totally reject religion. They believed in the existence of God but rejected Christian teaching. They believed man should aspire to improve the present life instead of focusing on the next life as a means of better life in the present. According to them happiness in this world should come before religious salvation. They also strongly criticized the church for its great wealth, political power and opposition of reason.
The most influential philosophical work was the Encyclopede.It was published in 17 volumes between 1751 and 1772. It was edited by Denis Diderot and d’Alembert. It was a collection of scientific, technical and historical knowledge. It criticized practices and institutions in society and was widely read all over Europe. Contributors, also known as encyclopedists included leading French philosophers like Voltaire, Montesquiu, Rousseau, d’Alembert among others.
Montesquieu (1689-1755) was opposed to absolutism. In this book, The Spirit of the Laws, which he published in 1748, he developed the idea of separation of powers. He believed that power should be shared between the king and different institutions. He praised the English system of government where functions of the executive, legislature and judiciary were separated. His ideas influenced the writing of the United States constitution in 1787.
Voltaire (1694-1788) believed in freedom of thought, religious liberty and freedom of the press. He attacked religion because he believed that belief in the supernatural was not necessary as it made people stupid, cruel and intolerant. In his book, Letters on the English, he praised English intellectuals whose main idea was that reason was more important than religious belief. According to him, Christianity and other religions were only inventions of human beings. In politics, Voltaire believed in enlightened and powerful leaders, who would control church leaders, promote freedom of religion, improvement in living standards and scientific progress.
Jean –Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was another influential philosopher. In his Social Contract of 1762, he believed that, in their natural condition, human beings are lawless and immoral. In other works he said that only a good society could produce good people. He said political power dependent on the social contract, an agreement among individuals to accept the general will. The general will of the people was most important. It was not determined by roles but common interest. A government comes into power according to the will of the people. People have the right to reject it if does not promote and protect their interests. He believed in responsible citizenship and participation in public affairs, which represented the common will. His ideas influenced the growth of democracy and nationalism. He promoted equality and made upper classes lose faith in their own superiority, an idea that contributed to the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789.
Results of Enlightenment
The ideas of Enlightenment Philosophers impacted on political and educational theory. Their ideas circulated widely in Europe and scientific experiments and philosophical works became popular. Some monarchs adopted ideas of enlightenment, for example Frederick II of Russia. Such leaders carried out Policy reforms in education, judiciary, training civil service, religious tolerance and abolition of serfdom. Through their influence, the ideas of liberty and parliamentarism from England were spread in Europe. They promoted the idea that the state should be strengthened so as to promote its activities instead of limiting its power. Enlightened philosophers targeted their attacks on the church and the nobility. Their activities resulted in the French Revolution, American Revolution and Declaration of Independence where enlightenment ideas were applied .They popularized the idea that the purpose of knowledge is the protection of the rights of men and women. These rights included personal security, equality before the law and participation of citizens in government. Enlightenment also marked the decline of religious influence and the rise of secularism. It promoted liberalism and reform.
References:
Grant, A.J &Temperly, H,(1996) Europe in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, London: Longman.
Palmer, R.R., Colton, J &Kramer, L (2007),A History of the Modern World, Tenth Edition, New York: McGraw-Hill.
Peacock, H.L, (1982), A History of Modern Europe 1789 to 1981, London: Heinemann.
Richards, D, (1997), An Illustrated History of Modern Europe, London: Longman.
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 2, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Thomson, D,(1998),Europe Since Napoleon, London: Longman.
DEVELOPMENT OF STONE AGE TECHNOLOGY
Technology refers to the making tools, equipment, structures and other things to facilitate human activities. Stone Age is the period in human evolution when man mainly used stone tools. The use of tools distinguished human beings from other animals. The Stone Age period began 2.5 million years ago and ended 5000 years ago. It is divided into three periods: Old Stone Age (Paleolithic), Middle stone Age (Mesolithic) and new Stone Age began and ended at different times in many parts of Old Stone Age.
Human beings first made stock tools in this period. There are two types of tools making technology in this period: Old wan and Achrvlian.
The oldwan aechnique of tool making was named after oldvai Gorge in northern Tanzania where Lovis Leakey and Mary Leakey discovered Zinjathropus in 1969. The oldwan technique involved the use of small tones or pebbles. Man used these tools for scraping, chopping and removing fresh from animal carcasses among other things.
At this stage man also used materials different from stone. Such materials included wood for digging sticks and clubs. Stone tools were used to sharpen sticks. Human beings also used shells, hides, bark or hides to make containers. At this stage of evolution, man was known homo-habits or handy-man because of ability to make and use tools.
The Acheulean stone tools making technology is named after a pre-historic site near saint Acheul in France. This is characterized by advanced tools as compared to oldowan. At this stage of evolution axe was big, pointed and oral shaped. It was used for butchery among other things. The axes were used in Africa, Europe and Aasia between 1.5 million and 200.000 years ago. Acheuilian tools were used together with oldowan tools. Some of the Acheulian sites in Africa include Oldivai George and Isimila in Tanzania and Kalambo falls in Tanzania.
Other characteristics of man in Old Stone Age
During this period man was a scavenger and lived on carcasses left by wild animals. Besides scavenging, man hunted wild animals like pigs and antelopes. Man used traps to catch animals or simply chased them. Man also gathered fruits, insects and roots. Man was nomadic and lived in overhanging rocks. Man lived groups of 20 to 30 people. This was because hunting demanded group activity man lived near lakes and rivers where it was easy to catch animals. Man developed specialization because of developed brain. As a result hunting was done by men while women concentrated on gathering fruits and roots.
Between and 1 million years ago man’s brain developed further and he adopted himself to the environment. Man at this time was known as Homo-Erectus (Upright man). His brain was about 775-1215 cubic centimeters. It was during this period. Man also developed family ties. Language was not yet developed because man was only able to make a few sounds.
Middle Stone Age
The middle Stone Age is the second stage of human evolution. In Africa this took place about 10,000 years ago. In this period man developed the idea of making smaller and better stone tools where blades were geometric in shape –for example, triangles, rectangles and crescents. The most important innovation in this period was the discovery of fire. With fire, men were able to improve tools. For example glue would be extracted from plants and used to fix spears and axes on wooden shafts. Man also used fire for cooking and keeping away animals at night. During the middle Stone Age man started using many types of food, for example cereals. Evidence of harvesting cereals using sickles made of flint and bone animals. Other innovations in this period include animal traps made from animal skins and barks of trees, fish looks and traps, bows, arrows, baskets, textiles, dug out canoes, puddles, paltry among others these innovations led to the beginning of forming and start of new stone Age man’s brain developed and he started speaking. He was called Homo-sapiens, meaning thinking man.
New Stone Age
This period was marked by the most important innovation of man: the beginning of forming through domestication of animals and plants farming led to permanent settlements and the emerging of communities with big populations. The surplus production leads to wealth and trade.
The innovations were result of improvements in tools for different purposes- for example, clearing forests for forming. Tools would be used for longer periods without need for re-sharpening. In this period there was large scale trade in axes and stone. Other innovations include grinding stones, mortars and pestles for processing cereals, pottery for food storage, and plant fibres for textiles and weaving technology. In this period there were constructions of houses with mud bricks, twigs plasted with day and houses constructed with timber.
Towards the end of the New Stone Age about 6,000 years ago made ornaments from copper and made fin and copper into alloys. As a result, metal replaced stone as raw material for making tools.
References
References:
Sherman, D &Salisbury, J, (2006), The West in the World, Vol. 2, Second Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Mazour, A.G., Peoples, J.A & Rabb, K.T (1983), Peoples and Nations: A World History, New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Publishers.
Bentley, H.J & Ziegler, F.H (2006), Traditions Encounters: A Global Perspective of the Past, Volume B, From 1000 to 1800, Third Edition, New York: McGraw Hill.
Brinton, C., Christopher, J.B & Wolf, L.R (1967) A History of Civilisation, Vol.1, Prehistory to 1715, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.